SAT READING & WRITING · RACHEL · CLASS 06 · OCTOBER 10

Class Summary

Class Recap

Punctuation: The Comma, Unit 1 (joining two sentences) with Questions 1–3, and the Unit 2 rules: words that turn a clause into a dependent clause.
Grammar: How to read a long sentence down to its skeleton: one finite verb per clause, modifiers that can be deleted, and extra information between two commas.
Reading: Inferences: what the question looks like, and Question 1 (why deep sleep is so widespread).
Homework: 20 grammar questions, 10 punctuation questions and 10 inference questions.

The Comma

Three kinds of joining words. They can all show a link between two ideas, but they follow different punctuation rules. Learn one model sentence for each group rather than the rule wording.

Group	Words	Pattern	Model sentence
Coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS)	for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so	IC, FANBOYS IC	I was tired, but I kept running.
Conjunctive adverbs	however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless, instead, for example	IC; however, IC	I was tired; however, I kept running.
Dependent-clause (DC) words	although, because, as, if, when, while	DC, IC	Although I was tired, I kept running.

Why a semicolon before however? However belongs to the second clause, and a comma already sits inside that unit (however, I kept running). To separate the two clauses you need the next mark up from a comma: the semicolon.
Not a joining word: “I was tired, however, I kept running” is a comma splice, because however cannot join two independent clauses the way but can.

Way to join two ICs	When to use it	Example
IC. IC	the second sentence starts a new point	The first trial failed. The second trial produced useful data.
IC, FANBOYS IC	the link is stated by the joining word (contrast, result, addition)	The first trial failed, but the second trial produced useful data.
IC; IC	the two sentences stay closely linked without a joining word	The first trial failed; the second trial produced useful data.

Comma splice (wrong): IC, IC. Quick test: if there is a subject and a finite verb before the comma and another subject and finite verb after it, a comma alone is wrong.
One subject, two verbs: no comma before and. The two verbs share one subject, so they form one unit. They also keep the same tense.

✓ The sensor records the temperature and transmits the data. (one subject, two verbs)
✗ The sensor records the temperature, and transmits the data.
✓ The sensor records the temperature, and it transmits the data. (a new subject, it: two ICs)
✓ I opened the door and closed the window. (same tense on both sides of and)

Question 3, the trap you chose first. A comma + and looks like the FANBOYS pattern, but there is no new subject after and. Delete the opening modifier (Conducted in 1946 by the U.S. Army Signal Corps,) and treat the long object as one noun phrase. What is left: Project Diana’s successful radar contact with the Moon demonstrated [a noun phrase] and inspired [a noun phrase] — one subject, two verbs, so no comma (B).

Dependent-clause words and what they add. The word plus a clause makes a DC, which cannot stand alone.

Meaning	DC words	Example
reason	because, as, since	Because the data were incomplete, the researchers repeated the experiment.
condition	if, unless	If the temperature rises, the metal expands.
concession (giving ground)	although, though, even though	Although I won the race, I didn’t enjoy it.
time	when, while, after, before	When the study ended, the researchers analyzed the results.
contrast	while, whereas	While some critics praised the novel, others found it confusing.

Where the DC sits decides the comma. A DC before the main clause takes a comma after it. A DC that gives the time, reason or condition after the main clause usually takes no comma. A closing contrast clause (whereas, or while / although meaning “but”) takes a comma before it.
While has two meanings. At the front of a sentence it usually gives the time. After the main clause it can give the time or a contrast, so read the context.

✓ While I was injured, I won the race.
✓ I won the race while I was injured.
✓ The northern slope stays wet, whereas the southern slope dries out by June.

Question 2, the word as. Choice A starts the second sentence with As (“As to do so breaks the fourth wall, …”). As + clause is a DC, and a DC needs a main clause, which this sentence does not have. Delete the explanation after the comma (a metaphorical barrier …) and the prepositional phrase (between actors and audiences): what must stand alone is To do so breaks the fourth wall, where To do so is the subject and breaks is the verb. So the first sentence ends after audience (C).

Reading a long sentence down to its skeleton. (1) Delete prepositional phrases (in 1902, from a local printer). (2) Delete extra information between two commas or two dashes. (3) Spot verbs used as modifiers: an -ing form, to + verb, or a past participle such as opened. (4) What is left is the subject and its finite verb.
One clause, one finite verb. A finite verb has a subject and shows tense (holds, is). A non-finite verb (-ing, to + verb, a past participle) works as a modifier. A second verb in the same clause needs and.
Reduced modifier. The archive opened in 1902 means the archive, which was opened in 1902. Here opened describes the archive (someone opened it); it is not the verb of the sentence.

✗ The archive opened in 1902, a gift from a local printer, it now holds 40,000 maps. (comma splice)
✓ The archive opened in 1902, a gift from a local printer; it now holds 40,000 maps.
✓ The archive opened in 1902 holds 40,000 maps. (skeleton: The archive … holds)
✓ The archive, a gift from a local printer, now holds 40,000 maps. (extra information between two commas)

Extra information between two commas (an appositive) can be deleted together with both commas, and the sentence still works. Two dashes do the same job; the two marks must match.

Inferences

How the question looks. The text stops at a blank: “Which choice most logically completes the text?” The words before the blank (imply that, suggest that) say whose conclusion it is.
Map the text first. Sentence 1 is background (natural science: animals and sleep). But some scientists claim brings the new point.
Mark the key words and limits. vulnerable, insufficient, known benefits. “Known” matters: there may be benefits nobody knows yet. A choice that says “all benefits” would be a trap.
Big direction → zoomed-in topic. Sleep in general → deep sleep. A choice that leaves out deep sleep can go in the first round.

Your one-sentence summary: Deep sleep makes animals vulnerable, and its known benefits seem too small to explain why it is so widespread, so it probably has benefits that have not been found yet.

Choice	Why it goes or stays
B and D	They talk about “most traits” or “many traits”. The text discusses one trait, deep sleep, so these widen the topic.
C	It ranks two research questions. The text never says one question matters more than another.
A	“advantageous in ways that have yet to be discovered” matches “known benefits … insufficient”, and “likely” keeps it modest.

D was your first choice. It sounds like a fair summary (benefits come with risks), but it makes a rule about “many traits”, and it stops at the risk. The scientists’ point ends with “insufficient to explain”, which points to a benefit not yet known.

Review Tips

Comma: Before choosing, find a subject and a finite verb on each side of the blank. Two ICs: period, semicolon, or comma + FANBOYS. One subject with two verbs: no comma.
Model sentences: Say these three until they are automatic: I was tired, but I kept running. / I was tired; however, I kept running. / Although I was tired, I kept running.
Long sentences: Delete prepositional phrases, extra information between commas and verb-based modifiers. Then name the subject and the verb.
Inferences: Map background → new point, mark the limit words, say the smallest conclusion in your own words, then drop choices that widen the topic, add new information or rank things the text never ranks.
Homework: Grammar: decode the skeleton before you look at the choices. Punctuation: label each side IC or DC first. Inferences: write your one-sentence summary before reading the choices.